The Decline of the Islamic Golden Age: Separating Fact from Fiction
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Chapter 1: The Siege of Baghdad
On January 29, 1258, Al-Musta'sim, the last Abbasid Caliph, faced his worst fears. After celebrating the fall of Alamut, he found the Mongol forces, commanded by Hulagu Khan, at his gates. The caliph had underestimated his support in the Islamic realm and regretted not having paid tribute to the Mongols, but by then, it was too late.
Baghdad experienced immense destruction, including the loss of the House of Wisdom, one of history's largest libraries. The Tigris River ran black with the ink of countless books tossed into its depths. Many believe the Islamic Golden Age concluded with the fall of this great repository of knowledge. However, is it accurate to blame the Mongols for the end of this era? Was the decline in creativity and innovation in the arts and sciences evident long before Hulagu's incursion?
Why did later Islamic empires, such as the Mughals, Safavids, and Ottomans, not achieve the same level of technological advancement as the Abbasid Caliphate? Let's delve deeper into these questions.
Section 1.1: The Overplayed Mongol Narrative
The Islamic Golden Age, spanning approximately from the eighth to the thirteenth centuries, was a period marked by significant cultural, economic, and scientific advancement in the Islamic world. Renowned scholars like Ibn Sina (Avicenna), Al-Biruni, Al-Khwarizmi, Omar Khayyam, and Ibn Rushd (Averroes) made substantial contributions to various fields, including mathematics, astronomy, medicine, chemistry, and philosophy.
The advancements made during this time had a lasting impact, as many Islamic texts were translated by European scholars, significantly influencing the Italian Renaissance. Baghdad, as the heart of the Abbasid Caliphate, was central to this period of enlightenment. Consequently, historians often view Hulagu's destruction of Baghdad in 1258 as the definitive end of the Islamic Golden Age.
Hulagu's assault marked the conclusion of the Mongol invasions against Islamic territories, which began with Genghis Khan's obliteration of the Khwarezmian Empire. The refusal of Muhammad II of Khwarazm to engage in trade with the Khan led to the Mongol incursion into Central Asia. Following the murder of a diplomatic envoy by a Khwarezmian governor, Genghis retaliated, leading to the devastation of the region.
A few decades after Genghis's death, his grandson Mongke ordered an expedition to conquer the Middle East, with Hulagu at the helm.
The first video titled "What Ended the Golden Age of Islam | Al Muqaddimah" explores the complex factors surrounding the conclusion of this remarkable period.
While the Mongols are often viewed as destroyers of civilization, a closer examination reveals their role as patrons of the arts and sciences. Since Genghis's time, Mongol rulers spared scholars, artists, religious leaders, and skilled workers, allowing the growth of knowledge and artistic expression to persist during their reign.
Notably, the famous astronomer Nasir-al-din Tusi caught Hulagu's attention. The Mongol general commissioned the construction of an observatory at Maragheh in present-day Azerbaijan. Before the House of Wisdom was destroyed, Tusi managed to relocate 400,000 books to his observatory. His observations on planetary movements, published in the Zij-i-Ilkhani, were the most advanced of the Middle Ages and later influenced Copernicus's heliocentric theory.
Section 1.2: The Legacy of Science and Innovation
Kublai Khan, another Mongol leader, requested that Hulagu send Islamic scholars to China. These scholars introduced various scientific innovations, including the astrolabe and new concepts of timekeeping. The exchange of knowledge across Eurasia flourished, and Muslim scholars gained influence in Mongol courts.
In the early 15th century, figures like Ulugh Beg continued to support scholarship, establishing the largest observatory in Samarkand and attracting scientists globally. The notion that the Mongol invasions ended the Islamic Golden Age is fundamentally flawed and requires reevaluation.
Despite the destruction of Baghdad, the Islamic world still boasted powerful empires like the Safavids, Ottomans, and Mughals, which utilized advanced military technology.
Chapter 2: The Shift in Scientific Inquiry
The second video titled "How Did The Islamic Golden Age End?" further investigates the cultural and scientific decline that occurred post-Golden Age.
As Al-Biruni poignantly stated, "It is quite impossible that a new science or any kind of research should arise in our days." This quote reflects a narrative of diminishing scientific inquiry in the Islamic realm long before Genghis Khan's forces arrived.
Historically, scientific progress relied heavily on patronage from rulers and influential families, much like the Italian Renaissance's dependence on the Medici. The Barmakids, an aristocratic family from Balkh, were instrumental in financing translations of Hindu mathematical texts into Arabic and established Baghdad's first paper mill.
Prominent families influenced those in power to invest in human advancement, fostering prosperity among citizens. However, later dynasties like the Mughals, Safavids, and Ottomans prioritized grand architectural projects over scientific inquiry. Between the 16th and 18th centuries, most writings were commentaries on existing works, lacking originality.
While the belief that the Ottomans banned printing has diminished among historians, there remains evidence suggesting they discouraged the printing of works in Arabic and Turkish until the 18th century. Handwritten books, though artistically valuable, limited the dissemination of knowledge.
The reluctance to embrace scientific study and new technologies caused the Islamic world to lag behind its European counterparts by the late 17th century.
Section 2.1: The Cultural Climate of Inquiry
The decline of the Islamic Golden Age was not a singular event; it was influenced by societal conditions and the prevailing intellectual climate. During Caliph al-Mamun's rule, the theologian Ibn Hanbal advocated for strict adherence to the Quran and Hadiths, rejecting external influences. This stance contrasted with the rationalist Mutazilite philosophy that championed free thought.
Although al-Mamun supported rationalist ideas, subsequent rationalists did not fare as well. Al-Ghazali, a traditionalist philosopher, criticized Avicenna's rationalist views and gained significant influence in the Islamic world. His works led to a perspective that confined scientific inquiry within religious doctrine, effectively stifling free thought.
The restrictions imposed by Ghazali's philosophy hindered the progress of various scientific disciplines and left rational thinkers sidelined for generations. While Averroes attempted to challenge Ghazali's critiques, his ideas found more acceptance in Latin and Hebrew translations than in the Islamic world.
According to historian Frederick Starr, Ghazali's influence laid the groundwork for a rigid Islamic legal framework that limited free thought, allowing a religious establishment independent of the state to impact scientific progress.
Long before the Mongol invasions, the Islamic world had already begun to reject rational thinking. Factors such as the decline of Silk Road trade and the rise of naval trade helped propel Europeans ahead, although attributing the decline solely to these changes is overly simplistic. The Mughals, Safavids, and Ottomans thrived on Silk Road commerce, yet their wealth did not translate into scientific advancement.
Instead of attributing the end of the Islamic Golden Age solely to the Mongols, we must recognize their role in dismantling the restrictive institutions that hindered scientific progress. Under Mongol rule, there was a revival of intellectual pursuits as religious scholars lost their grip on power for at least a century.
Ulugh Beg's precise calculations of the solar year, surpassing those of Copernicus, demonstrate the potential for scientific advancement that was ultimately thwarted by his untimely assassination and the destruction of his observatory by religious extremists.
Have there been other significant factors contributing to the decline of the Islamic Golden Age? Share your thoughts in the comments below.
In conclusion, we have debunked the narrative that the Mongol invasions marked the end of the Islamic Golden Age. To learn more about how the Mongols facilitated the spread of technology and knowledge across Eurasia, check out the video above.
Sources:
- Jamil Ragep. "Freeing Astronomy from Philosophy: An Aspect of Islamic Influence on Science," Osiris, 2001.
Jack Weatherford. "Genghis Khan and the Making of the Modern World," Crown Publishers, 2004.
Meri, Josef W. "Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia," Routledge, 2005.
Michael Prawdin. "The Mongol Empire: its rise and legacy," Transaction, 2006.
- Frederick Starr. "Lost Enlightenment: Central Asia's Golden Age from the Arab Conquest to Tamerlane," Princeton University Press, 2013.